High frequency negative resistance device



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' ATTORNEY June 4, 1957 w. SHOCKLEY 2,794,917

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.INVENTOR W. SHOCKLEY A TTORNEV Unite HIGH FREQUENCY NEGATIVE RESISTANCE DEVICE Application January 27, 1953, Serial No. 333,449

40 Claims. (Cl. 250-46) This application is a continuation in part of application Serial No. 91,594, filed May 5, 1949, now Patent 2,681,993, which issued June 22, 1954, for Circuit Element Utilizing Semiconductive Materials, which is a division of a similarly entitled application Serial No. 35,423, filed June 26, 1948, now Patent 2,569,347, September 25, 1951.

This invention relates to semiconductive translators and more particularly, to such translators exhibiting negative power dissipation to alternating signals, applications for translators having such negative power dissipation, and methods of operating translators to obtain this negative power dissipation.

An object of the present invention is to improve means for and methods of translating electrical signals.

Another object is to improve semiconductive translators and their methods of operation whereby negative power dissipation at high frequencies is obtained.

A feature of this invention resides in controlling the current flowing through a semiconductive body by an electric field or fields of a nature different from those responsible for normal current flow through a body.

An additional feature pertains to obtaining negative signal power dissipation in a semiconductive device at high frequencies by transit time effects of charge carriers in the device. More particularly, negative resistance is developed in two terminal semiconductive elements by correlating the structural and operating parameters of the elements so that the period of the operating frequency and the transit time of charge carriers across a region are properly related. The negative signal power dissipation in these devices is the result of a shift in phase between the signal voltage and the signal current flowing through that portion of the device across which the principal voltage drop occurs.

Another feature involves utilizing a semiconductive body having a minority charge carrier injector, means for effecting a delay between the signal voltage and the flow of current due to injected minority charge carriers, and means for obtaining a high current subsequent to said delay whereby a phase shift is obtained between the signal voltage and current of such magnitude that negative signal power dissipation is realized. In other words, the pulsive signal charge traverses a region having a higher field gradient during the latter portion of its transit through the device than the gradient through which it passes during the initial portion of its transit.

A feature of some embodiments comprehends a geometry wherein the lines of flow of the charge carriers converge as they approach the collecting region of the device. In such a structure, the motion of charges toward the end of their path produces a larger change in voltage than for a comparable motion earlier in the path.

The utilization of a region in a semiconductive body in which there is substantially no field and the motion of the charge carriers occurs slowly by the process of diffusion intermediate the source of charge carriers and the region in which the major voltage drop occurs to produce States Patent ice a delay between voltage and current constitutes a feature of some embodiments of this invention.

A feature of some embodiments of this invention which are akin to those having the next preceding feature resides in utilizing a built in field in the delay region intermediate the charge carrier source and the region in which the major portion of the voltage drop occurs, thereby increasing the amount of negative signal power dissipation obtained.

A further feature involves so correlating the bias and signal frequency applied to a semiconductive body containing three adjacent zones of opposite conductivity types with the semiconductive characteristics of those zones and the width of the intermediate zone that the device exhibits negative resistance to the applied signal.

Other features include combinations in which negative resistance semiconductive diodes are correlated with other elements and control means for operation in amplifiers, oscillators, modulators, and other circuit arrangements.

The term negative resistance will be employed in this discussion to define a device which provides negative power dissipation of an alternating signal. Negative power dissipation of a signal is realized when the integrated product of the signal voltage and signal current is negative. One way of obtaining a negative integrated product of current and voltage is by establishing a phase shift between the voltage and current in the first or subsequent cycles of between and 270 degrees. Devices wherein the transit time of charge carriers from an injector to a reverse biased barrier falls between one half and three halves the period of the applied signal will exhibit negative resistance to that signal.

Negative resistances are known in the art. Heretofore, semiconductive negative resistances generally have been of the type which operate by thermistor action. The resistance of these devices is inversely related to their temperature. This factor can be utilized to effect inversely related variations between current and voltage which occur at less than the critical frequency of the unit. An increase in current through them increases their power dissipation which, in turn, increases their temperature, thereby reducing their resistance and thus their voltage. Since it is essential to the operation of thermistor type negative resistances that their temperature follow the current which flows, these devices must be of low thermal inertia and therefore of small mass and good radiating capacity. Thermal inertia places limits on the maximum operating frequency, the power handling capacity and ruggedness of these devices.

I. A. Becker and M. C. Waltz have disclosed another form of semiconductive dynamic negative resistance in their application Serial No. 199,868, filed December 8, 1950, now Patent 2,740,940, issued April 3, 1956, wherein negative resistance operation is obtained by reducing the spreading resistance of the unit as the current flowing through it in the forward direction is increased.

Negative resistance in the present invention is realized by providing a phase shift between signal voltage and signal current in a manner somewhat related to that disclosed in F. B. Llewellyns Reissue Patent 23,369, May 22, 1951. Llewellyn utilizes transit time effects in vacuum diodes and obtains circuit performance from them which is similar to that of the solid state transit time diodes of this invention. However, the mode of operation for semiconductive diodes differs markedly from that for vacuum diodes. This difference arises from the fact that in the case of vacuum devices the charge carriers, electrons, move with conservation of momentum so that the speed at any instant is dependent upon their past history. In contrast, electrons or holes in a semiconductor suffer collisions at a frequency of about 10 times per second; as a result they continue to move in the direction of an applied field only so long as the field exerts a force upon them. It is possible to achieve negative resistance operation in semi-conductive devices even though the momentum of the charge carriers is not conserved by effecting the functions necessary for negative resistance in a manner and with means not available in vacuum diodes. Thus, a delay region in which motion of the charge carriers occurs slowly by diffusion is employed as one means of producing the necessary phase shift, fields are built into the structures chemically to enhance the acceleration of the charge carriers, and the dielectric relaxation at the operating voltages is decreased due to the non-linear relationship between drift velocity and electric field.

Generally the negative resistance units of this invention utilize semiconductive elements which from a functional standpoint are composed of three regions, namely a source of charge carirers, or a charge carrier injector, actuated by an applied signal voltage, a region through which travel of the carriers is delayed to obtain a phase shift between the current which they cause in the external circuit and the applied signal voltage, and a region through which the carriers pass and cause current flow in the external circuit. These regions may be separate or combined; thus, for example, the source may be a forward biased junction or barrier in the semiconductive body, the current region may be in the vicinity of a reverse biased junction or barrier, and the delay region may be of an intermediate region of one conductivity type; or the source may be separate while the delay and current regions may be integral.

The negative resistances disclosed here rely upon the transit time effects obtainable from certain semiconductive structures when operated under the proper conditions. Negative resistance at frequencies from of the order of a megacycle to of the order of thousands of megacycles can be realized with this type of device as compared to upper limits of the order of a megacycle for the semiconductive negative resistances of the prior art.

In one specific embodiment of this invention, a negative resistance is in the form of a single crystal germanium bar containing end zones of n-type material and an intermediate zone of p-type material. Ohmic connections are made to each of the rz-type zones and the resulting diode is biased from a direct current source so that electrons are injected from the forward biased p-n junction into the 1; zone, diffuse through a portion of that zone at a relatively low rate and enter the space charge region surrounding the reverse biased p-n junction. The field in the space charge region carries the electrons across this region at a high rate. An alternating voltage is superimposed on the bias, this voltage having a frequency so related to the transit time of charge caniers from the forward biased p-n junction through the space charge region that a phase shift between the current and voltage of between 90 and 270 degrees occurs. The resulting diode negative resistance can be employed in a negative resistance oscillator by associating an impedance with it which is resonant with its reactance at the negative resistance frequency. The optimum negative resistance frequency of devices of this nature can be adjusted by varying the applied bias to change the transit time of injected charge carriers.

The above and other objects and features of this invention will be more fully appreciated from the following detailed description when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings in which:

Fig. 1 is a diode negative resistance as disclosed in the above-identified application of which this is in part a continuation;

Fig. 2 is an energy level diagram of the diode of Fig. 1;

Figs. 3A and 3B are oscillator circuits utilizing the negative resistance devices of this invention as the driving element;

Figs. 4A and 4B show an equivalent circuit of an '4 illustrative two terminal device and a plot of its impulsive impedance (defined below);

Figs. 5 through 8 depict in their respective parts A through D plots of impulsive impedance against time for various diodes, a cosine wave of the applied signal, the negative first derivative of impulsive impedance with respect to time and a sine wave of the applied signal;

Figs. 9A and 9B are plots of impulsive impedance against time while parts C and D are cosine waves of the applied signal;

Figs. 10A through 10D illustrate a graphical means of determining whether a given plot of impulsive impedance against time will give negative resistance at some frequency;

Fig. 11 is a plot of another form of impulsive impedance against time;

Fig. 12 is another form of negative resistance semiconductor illustrative of this invention;

Figs. 13, 14 and 15, respectively, show the potential distribution, space charge of the holes, and the space charge due to the acceptors and donors, all with operating biases, along the length of the unit of Fig. 12;

Fig. 16 represents the instantaneous charge and field distribution along a semiconductive body of the type shown in Fig. 12 immediately after the application of an increment of charge;

Figs. 17 and 18 in parts A through C show the initial changes for successive instants of time in the charge density for the transient holes and in the transient field along a device of the type shown in Fig. 12 following the application of an increment of charge;

Fig. 19 is a plot of voltage distribution across the intermediate zone of v-type material of the unit of Fig. 12;

Figs. 20, 21 and 22 are plots of the charge density of transient holes, the transient field and the transient voltage, respectively, along the zone of v-type material of the unit of Fig. 12 at successive instants of time, parts A, B, C and D;

Fig. 23 shows the impulsive impedance of the zone of v-type material of the unit of Fig. 12 plotted against time;

Fig. 24 shows the relationship between charge carrier mobility and electric field for a typical semiconductor;

Figs. 25 and 26 illustrate means of evaluating the total derivative for the transient field on a plane moving across the drift region of the u-type zone of the unit of Fig. 12;

Fig. 27 represents the space-charge due to the transient hole density along the weakly rz-type zone of the unit of Fig. 12;

Fig. 28 is an enlarged portion of Fig. 13 showing the potential as a function of distance along the semiconductive body of Fig. 12 in the region of the potential maximum;

Fig. 29 is a plot of field distribution, Es, and potential distribution, Vs, as functions of Z for the case of space charge limited emission;

Fig. 30 shows the relationship between potential and distance along the u-type zone of Fig. 12 for the case of space charge due-to holes only;

Fig. 31 shows the distribution of added holes to the left of the potential maximum of the device of Fig. 12;

Fig. 32 depicts the current-voltage relationship for a p vp structure neglecting diffusion and electrons;

Fig. 33 illustrates the impulsive impedance for various values of 3 in a p+-v-p+ structure;

Figs. 34 and 35 show the real and imaginary portions of the impedance of a p i/--p structure as a function of transit angle;

Fig. 36 shows one form of semiconductive diode, transit time negative resistance having a geometry which requires convergent current flow;

Figs. 37A through 37C are plots of the charge density of transient holes against distance through the intermediate zone of the diode of Fig. 36 at successive instants;

=Figs. 38A through 38C are plots of transient electric field against distance through the intermediate zone of the diode of Fig. 36 at successive instants;

Fig. 39 is a plot of impulsive impedance against time for the diode of Fig. 36; and

'Figs. 40 and 41 illustrate other diode geometries in which convergent carrier flow occurs.

At the outset it will be helpful to an understanding of semiconductive negative resistances and their mode of operation to set forth definitions of certain terminology to be employed below together with a brief discussion of these terms. For a more complete exposition regarding these terms and their significance, reference is made to W. Shockleys book Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors, published by D. Van Nostrand 00., Inc.

Conduction occurs in electronic semiconductors by means of two types of charge carriers, namely electrons, which are negative charge carriers, and electron deficits or holes, which may be considered as positive charge carriers. These carriers can be provided in the semiconductor in several ways including the application of suflicient energy to break an electron away from its semiconductive atom, thus creating an unbound electron and an unbound hole; the presence of lattice defects in the semiconductor structure; and the presence of certain elements in the crystal structure which have either an excess or a deficit of valence electrons so that they provide a source of unbound holes or electrons which can be released by the application of a low level of external energy to the crystal. Generically, those semiconductors wherein conduction is in the main by electrons are called n-type while those where conduction occurs by electron deficits or holes are called p-type. Where it is desirable to identify the characteristics of the materials with more particularity rm and p+ will identify materials which have a marked predominance of the characteristic type of charge carrier. Nu, v, and pi, 1r, will be employed to signify that the material contains only a slight predominance of the characteristic type of carriers, i. e., vr-type material is weakly p-type and u-type is weakly n-type. Intrinsic material, that in which the electrons and holes are in substantial balance, will be identified as i-type.

Silicon and germanium are semiconductors having a diamond cubic lattice form wherein each of the four valence electrons of each atom normally form an electron pair bond with a valence electron of each of four adjacent atoms. These materials occur both as n and p type and are readily controlled in their type by the presence of the above-mentioned elements. Those elements constituting impurities which contribute electrons to silicon and germanium semiconductors are termed donors and principally fall in the fifth group of the periodic table while those elements which contribute electron deficits are termed acceptors and generally occur in the third group of the periodic table. Typical donors include phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony, while boron, aluminum, gallium and indium are typical acceptors. Acceptors and donors will be referred to below as significant impurities to distinguish them from other materials which may be present in the semiconductor.

The conductivity and conductivity type of a semiconductor is dependent upon the predominance of donors or acceptors present, since donors and acceptors tend to cancel eachother, the excess electron of the donor filling the electron vacancy of the acceptor. When the semiconductor contains a balance of electrons and holes at thermal equilibrium, it is identified as an intrinsic semiconductor while material in which one type of charge carrier predominates is known as extrinsic. The conductivity transition regions between zones of opposite conductivity type in a semiconductive body are known as p-n junctions or more generically as barriers, this term applying to metal-semiconductor junctions, p-n junctions, and extrinsic-intrinsic junctions wherein the energy levels on the two sides of the junction are different.

Some compounds are also efiective electronic semiconductors, for example copper oxide, cadmium sulfide, thallius sulfide and lead sulfide may be employed. These materials may be either 11 or p type depending upon the donor or acceptor predominance present. Here the donors and acceptors may be provided by impurities, either as elements or compounds, or by deviations from the stoichiometric balance of semiconductive compounds.

Germanium and silicon semiconductive bodies having adjacent zones of the desired conductivity type can be produced by a number of techniques including the segregation of impurities while an ingot is progressively cooled as disclosed in Patents 2,567,970 and 2,602,211 of J. H. Scafi' and H. C. Theuerer, September 18, 1951, and July 8, 1952, respectively, the heat treatment of a portion of the body at a particular temperature as taught in Scaif et a1. Patent 2,602,763, July 8, 1952; the diffusion of impurities from the body surface into its bulk as disclosed in G. L. Pearson application Serial No. 270,370, February 7, 1952, now Patent 2,757,324, and C. D. Thurmond application Serial No. 321,405, November 19, 1952, now abandoned, and the addition of impurities to a melt as a body is formed therefrom. Advantageously, the semiconductive bodies employed in the negative resistances under discussion may be formed from single crystal material in the manner disclosed in patent applications Serial No. 138,354 of I. B. Little and G. K. Teal, January 13, 1950, now Patent 2,683,676, issued July 13, 1954; Serial No. 168,184 of G. K. Teal, June 15, 1950, now Patent 2,727,840, issued December 20, 1955; and Serial No. 256,791 of W. G. Pfann, November 16, 1951, now Patent 2,739,088.

Junctions produced by these methods have characteristics which enable them to be employed as sources or emitters of charge carries when energy is applied properly. A junction biased in the forward direction, i. e., with the applied voltage poled to draw that type of charge carrier predominating on one side of the junction across it, constitues an excellent emitter, particularly when the emitting material contains a large predominance of the emitted type of carrier. Thus, electrons are emitted from n-p junction into the p Zone when the latter is biased positive relative to the 11 zone.

Means other than forward biased junctions for injecting charge carriers into a semiconductor include forward biased metallic contacts, reverse biased barriers having a field at some point in excess of the critical Zener field, and means for directing energy onto the semiconductor to excite electrons into the conduction band, e. g., heat, light and high energy particles.

A space charge region encompasses a reverse biased junction due to the tendency of the bias to draw the majority charge carriers out of the vicinity of the junction leaving ionized acceptors and donors on the p and :4 sides thereof respectively. The extent of this space charge region is dependent upon the applied voltage and inversely upon significant impurity predominance on each side of the junction. Hence, a junction which has a low acceptor predominance on the p side and a high donor predominance on the n side will have a space charge region extending a large distance from the center of the junction into the p-type material relative to its distance into the ntype material. An equal number of acceptors and donors must be ionized on the respective sides of the junction and this necessarily requires that a greater volume of the material having the low carrier density be afiected. Space charge regions contain very high fields even for small biases. Hence, any carriers entering a space charge region will traverse it quickly, i. e., the transit time will be very small. Another characteristic of a space charge region s t a it s a c pacitance wh h is inversely proportional to its thickness.

It is to be understood that space charge regions can be established in semiconductors in several ways in addition to applying a reverse bias across a p-n junction. For example, a space charge region may be established in a semiconductive body adjacent a metallic connection thereto by biasing the barrier between the two in the reverse direction, i. e., so that the voltage tends to draw minority carriers out of the semiconductor. As another example, such a region may be produced by applying a suitable potential between the semiconductor and insulator contiguous therewith.

While the following detailed described is directed particularly to devices having semiconductive bodies of silicon or germanium, this invention is not limited to these materials but rather is applicable to any electronic semiconductor in which suitable concentrations of acceptor and donor centers can be established.

A transit time negative resistance is shown in Fig. l and its energy level diagram is depicted in Fig. 2. A semiconductive diode structure as shown in Fig. 1 can be used as a negative resistance element at very high frequencies making use of transit time effects. It comprises three substantially parallel layers Nn, P and No of alterating excess significant impurity content with two metal electrodes 11 and 12, one at either side. In the example shown, the conductivity is supposed to be due entirely to electrons although it is to be understood that this and other forms of devices described herein will also operate with holes as the principal carriers by employing appropriate types of material and proper electrical parameters. When voltages are applied as indicated at a in Fig. 2, there will be an electron current flowing from NE to No. This current will of course increase with increasing applied potential. When the potential V3 is increased, there will be a corresponding increase in the potential V2. As a consequence of this, the electron flow from V1 through the P region of V2 will be increased. However, there will e a time lag between the increase of V3 and the actual flow of electrons from P to No. As a consequence of this, the electron current flowing between P and No will be out of phase with the voltage Vs. With the type of structure shown, this phase lag will be suflicient so that the current flowing between P and No can be made more than 90 degrees out of phase with the voltage on V3. Under these conditions the impedance of the device as viewed looking in on the V3 terminal will exhibit negative resistance.

The theory of somewhat related electronic devices involving negative resistance due to transit time is known in the literature. See, for example, the Bell System Technical Journal, January 1934 (vol. 13), and October 1935 (vol. 14). In order for such devices to operate, it is necessary that the transient response for a change in voltage on V3 have a suitable characteristic. The principal requirement of this characteristic is that the build-up in current following the change in V3 should occur with a certain delay after the change in V3. In the type of device shown in Fig. 1, this desired feature Will occur automatically. The reason for this is that electrons drift relatively slowly through the P region whereas they will traverse the space charge region of the P to No gap rapidly because of the high electric field present there. As a consequence of this, electrons which flow from NE to P during one phase of V3 carry their principal current from P to No at a later time and can thus be made to flow more than 90 degrees out of phase with the voltage applied to V3 and in this way furnish negative resistance.

A preliminary consideration of the negative resistance of this invention and their modes of operation wherein certain factors of semiconductive behavior have been neglected to simplify the explanation follows. A more rigorous general approach tonegativeresistances together h exem ar semi em od m s s P esented following this simplified explanation.

For this purpose the structure of Figs. 1 and 2 will be considered for conditions similar to those prevailing in an n-p-n transistor. Under these conditions, except for the space cha ge region between P and No, the concentration of injected electrons in the p-region will be small compared to the concentration of holes and the electron current will be carried primarily by diffusion. The high concentration of holes and resultant high conductivity will prevent alternating electric fields from appearing in the p-region. Thus, the applied alternating current voltage across the device, which may be expressed as V exp iwt, will be developed chiefly across the two p-n junctions 13 and 14. Furthermore, since the junction 14 between P and No is biased in the reverse direction, its impedance will be high compared to that of the junction 13 between NE and P which is biased forward.

For a forward biased p -n junction the impedance may be well approximated by considering the effects of the diffusion currents alone. This conclusion follows from the theory of 2-): junctions as developed by W. Shockley in the Bell System Technical Jonrnal, vol. 28, 435 (1949) and has been confirmed by experiment as reported by F. S. Goucher, G. L. Pearson, M. Sparks, G. K. Teal and W. Shockley, Physical Review, vol. 81, 637 (1951). Furthermore, as discussed in the parent application, now Patent 2,5 69,347, the relative contribution due to the How of holes across the Nn-P junction may be made small by making NE of much higher conductivity material than P. On the basis of these approximations, the relationship be tween current and voltage across the Nn-P junction may readily be evaluated by standard mathematical techniques. If the further approximation is made that few electrons combine with holes in crossing the p-region, the electron density in the p-region, wherein D is the diffusion constant for electrons, takes the form:

where x=0 corresponds to the edge 15 of the space charge region where It is substantially zero, and x=-L is the Nn-P junction. At x:L, practically all of the A. C. current denoted by In is carried by electrons. The electron current at x=0 is smaller by a factor ,8 where B may readily be evaluated by comparing the values of art/5x from the above expression for n(x,t), Equation 1.1. The result is:

Hence the ratio of voltage to total current across this region is B (00 Since a preponderant portion of the alternating current voltage drop occurs across the P-Nc junction, this ratio can be equated approximately to the impedance of the structure.

This impedance has a negative real part over most of the range of values for which Under these conditions the first term dominates the denominator in 13 so that the phase of i varies from 90 through -180 degrees to 270 degrees. At (L w/2D) equal to 51r/4, thevalue of i5 is approxi mately:

This shows that the injected electrons contribute about 3 percent to the capacity and add a negative resistance giving the condenser a Q of about 33.

Such a circuit element may be used to make an oscillator as shown in Fig. 3A. In this circuit the unit 17 is supplied from a high impedance source such as a battery 18 and a choke coil 19. An inductance 2t and a resistive load 21 are connected in series across the unit. The inductance is chosen so that it resonates with the condenser with and the inductance plus load plus choke coil should have a Q of 33 or larger. Under these conditions, the combined circuit has a negative Q and oscillations will build up until non-linear effects limit the amplitude.

An alternative oscillator circuit arrangement is depicted in Fig. 3B wherein the biasing source, battery 23, is shunted to the signal frequencies by a capacitance 24. In this circuit inductance 25 is chosen to resonate with the combined capacitance of the unit and the shunting capacitance at a frequency in the band in which negative resistance operation is obtained. Again the combined circuit including the load 26 should have a negative Q.

Inspection of the equation used in deriving )3 shows that for delay due to diffusion, there is attenuation. In fact, the effect of the exponential exp (1+i)(L w/2D) is to introduce a factor of exp (-1)=0.365 for each radian of delay. This adverse attenuation can be substantially reduced by incorporating an electric field in the p-region which causes the electrons to drift as well as to difiuse. For this case the diffusion equation becomes:

where V is the drift velocity due to the field. For a periodic variation the solution may be written in the form:

The real part of the coefficient a is smaller than the imaginary part and this results in relatively smaller attenuation for a given phase lag. For example, if the electric field produces a potential drop of 2kT/ q (=0.05 volt at 300 degrees Kelvin) in the distance L and if m is so chosen that wL/V=12.5, then the value of i5 is approximately i 8 0.0850.l5i.

Thus, the effective value of Q is changed from -33 to 13 by incorporating an electric field.

One way of producing the desired electric field is to employ a p-region in which the hole density decreases exponentially with distance in the direction of electron flow. Such a decrease can be obtained by utilizing a pregion having an acceptor concentration gradient which corresponds to the desired density of distribution. This decrease requires that the electrostatic potential increase linearly in the plus x direction. If the hole density falls by a factor exp (-2)=0.135 in this distance, the potential difierence of 2kT/q used in the previous example will be produced. This method of producing the electric field has the advantage that it requires no hole current to flow. It is possible to produce similar fields by the potential drops due to hole flows in the p-region opposite to the direction of electron flows.

In this introductory treatment, delay in crossing the space charge region has been neglected. In general, it will be very short compared to the time spent in diffusing through the p-regions so that the current of electrons across the space charge layer is practically the same as the current entering the space charge layer. In order to maximize frequency response while keeping the dimensions the same, it is desirable to have high fields throughout the structure. Such possibilities are considered in the development that follows.

Full understanding of the invention will be facilitated by a detailed analysis of the basic principles and relationships of parameters involved. Such analysis follows. For convenience of reference, a table of the symbols employed in this analysis is presented here.

C=capacitance D (t) =impulsive impedance E=electric field Im=imaginary part of a value J=current K=K0 or dielectric constant of the material, in the MKS system k=Boltzmanns constant L=distance n =density of electrons in conduction band in intrinsic material Na and Na=density of donors and acceptors Q=charge q=charge on an electron R=resistance Re=real part of a value Tt=transit time T=absolute temperature t=time V=voltage Va=bias voltage v==velocity of charge carriers W=thickness Wp=SlllTl of the widths of the p-layers x=the distance along a semiconductive body y=E/Er (see Equation 6.22)

Z=impedance Z=x/Lr (see Equation 6.23)

a=,u /K (see Equation 5.12)

fl=ozTt (see Equation 5.16)

e =dielectric constant of free space MKS v =KkT/q( /z) (see Equation 6.20)

x=dielectric constant n=n1obility of charge carriers n*=differential mobility of charge carriers (see Equation p=charge density r=relaxation time (see Equation 6.40)

0=transient angle w=circular frequency a=conductivity 1. THE IMPULSIVE IMPEDANCE The characteristics of the two terminal devices considered may be conveniently described in terms of the impulsive impedance, denoted by D(t). In this section D(t) has the dimensions of stiffness or reciprocal capacity. In later sections it will be convenient to deal with current densities and electric displacement, which are defined on a unit area basis. In this section, however, in which We are concerned with the properties of a two terminal circuit, it would be inconvenient to refer to resistances and reactances as ohm cm? etc. Consequently we shall consider the two terminal devices of this section as unit areas of the structures of subsequent sections.

The cur n I n mp res f th s ct o is th s equi alent to the current density J of the subsequent sections. The impulsive impedance with which we are concerned is defined in terms of the voltage produced by the addition of a pulse of charge to the biasing current J. If a large transient current flows for a very brief time at time z so as to add an extra charge BQo to the total charge carried by I, then the voltage at times after t is, by definition of D(t),

where Vb is the bias voltage corresponding to I. From this it is evident that D has the dimensions of farads- If an A. C. current 11(1) flows, the resulting voltage may be calculated by considering 11(2) to be made up of infinitesimal elements of charge added at times t. The voltage is the sum of those produced by these charges so that V(t)=V +f J (t)D(tt)dt (2.3)

In the integral J1(t)dt' is the charge added during dt at time t. This charge produces a voltage equal to the charge times D(tt') since the time t, when the voltage is observed, is later than t' by an amount t-t'. By introducing t"=tt', the integral may be changed to the form =V,,+f J(tt)D(t)dt 2.4

which is somewhat more convenient for some purposes. It may be helpful to illustrate this formula by applying it to the simple case shown in Fig. 4A representing a two terminal network comprising a resistance 50 of magnitude R and a capacitance 51 of magnitude C connected in parallel. For this case it is evident that an impulse of charge BQo will produce a voltage aQo/C and that this added voltage will decay exponentially with the time constant RC so that D(t)=(1/C) exp (-t/RC) (2.5)

J(t)=J+J exp (iwt) Inserting this in the integral for V(t) leads to In the last equation Z(w) is simply the impedance of the parallel combination of Fig. 4A, which is the reciprocal of the admittance in the denominator of the previous line. Thus we see that the use of the impulsive impedance D(t) for this case leads to the familiar impedance formula for the circuit.

Of particular importance in this discussion are devices having negative resistances at certain frequencies. The occurrence of a negative resistance is possible for some forms of impulsive impedance but not for others. For the case of the exponentially decaying D(t) of Fig. 4B, the impedance defined in Equation 2.7 may be rewritten in the form so that the real part of Z( is positive.

The real part of Z(w) may be obtained directly from Equation 2.4 by taking the real and imaginary parts of the current J1 exp (iwt). This leads to ImZ(w)=J Sill wtD(t)d (2.10 It is sometimes convenient to integrate 2.9 by parts thus obtaining ReZ(w) =w" sin wtD(t) I -w- J: sin mtD(t)dt (2.11)

where D'(t) dD(t)/dt (2.12)

The first term is zero since sin wt vanishes at the lower limit and D(t) at the upper. This leads to ReZ(w)=wj; sin (arena 2.13

We shall next consider the possibility of obtaining a negative resistance from various forms of the D(t) curve.

In Fig. 5A we represent the case of an exponential decay, which we treated analytically above. We shall reach the same conclusion here by graphical reasoning in order to illustrate certain properties of the integrals 2.9 and 2.13. The curves for D(t) and -D'(t) are similar in shape for this case. A negative resistance cannot occur since both the integrals 2.9 and 2.13 are positive. For the case of 2.9 we consider the first 360 degrees of the cosine wave as shown in Fig. 5B. Inspection shows that the ratios of the integrals over quadrants I and III is the same as between II and IV. Since I is positive and larger than III, I and HI make a positive contribution. Since II is smaller than I, the I and III contribution is not cancelled by the negative contribution of II and IV. Hence each cycle of cosine wave gives a positive contribution to ReZ(w).

The same result may be seen more easily from the second expression 2.13 as graphically represented by Figs. 5C and 5D. Here we see that the interval At gives a positive contribution larger than At and the same will hold true for subsequent cycles.

Fig. 6A shows a favorable case in which D(t) holds up for a time and then drops abruptly. If to is chosen so that there are about 270 degrees during the sustained interval for D(t), then the integral from degrees to 270 degrees will give a negative contribution larger than the positive one arising from 0 degrees to 90 degrees. Hence a negative resistance will arise from this form of D(t) for properly selected frequencies.

The same result may be seen more readily from the D'(t) curve, Fig. 6C. For the same frequency as before, it is evident that the integral is negative or zero for this case.

Fig. 7A shows a marginal case in which no negative resistance can be obtained but the limiting value of zero for the positive resistance can be reached. For this case of the linear decay, Fig. 7A, with constant value of D'(t) Fig. 7C, zero resistance occurs when the decay to zero takes exactly one cycle. This conclusion follows from the fact that the integral over one cycle of the sine wave is zero.

A slight deviation from linear decay can give the possibility of a negative resistance as shown in Fig. 8A. For this case D'(t), Fig. 8C, increases monotonically and then drops abruptly to zero. For the case of 360 degrees of sine wave during the decay time, it is evident that the integral from degrees to 360 degrees is negative and exceeds that from 0 degrees to 180 degrees so that a negative resistance is obtained.

In Fig. 9A we represent a curve for D(t) which may be approximated by a curve of the form of Fig. 8A plus a very short decay like that of Fig. 5A. The short decay 13 is represented separately as D (t) in Fig. 9B. The D term contributes a real resistance given by the approximation holding for the case represented in Fig. 98. From this We see that a short initial decay corresponds to a small positive resistance added to Z(w). If the cross-hatched area, which is assumed to be of the shape shown in Fig. 8A and contributes to the negative resistance, is large compared to the area R1, then a negative resistance will still be obtained at a suitable frequency.

In Fig. A we illustrate a graphical means of estimating whether or not a given D(t) curve is likely to give a negative resistance at some frequency. For this purpose D(t) is resolved into three components which are determined by the frequency selected for test. If the period of the test frequency is 413, then the components are:

D (t), a constant value A up 4t and zero thereafter,

Fig. 103

D (t), a straight line falling to zero at 423, Fig. 100

D3(t), the residue consisting of D(t)-Di(t)D2(t),

Fig. 10D.

D1(t) gives zero resistance since in Equation 2.9 it gives a value of zero for an integral over a complete cosine wave. D2(t) gives zero resistance for the reasons discussed in Figs. 7A through 7D. If the straight line of Fig. 10A has been drawn so as to intersect D(t) at points I, and 3t,, then evidently D,(t) will be opposite in sign to cos wt for the first quadrant, 0 t t and the second and third quadrants, t, t 3t,, and for some of the fourth quadrant. For the case illustrated, it is evident from inspection that the opposite sign areas dominate and that a negative resistance will occur for the selected frequency.

In Fig. 11 we illustrate a case that may occur for some structures of interest. In this case D(t) may be resolved into a short decay, similar to that discussed in Fig. 10 and a term D1(t) which persists indefinitely. The D1(t) may be considered as the limiting case of the RC circuit as R approaches infinity. Under these conditions D1(t) gives an impedance.

The resistive term vanishes as R approaches infinity and the reactive term is simply that of .a capacitance C=1/D1. Hence a long decay, like that of Fig. 11, simply adds a capacitance in series with the Z produced 'by D2. This behavior is the opposite extreme of the case of an abrupt initial decay, like that of Fig. 9A, which adds a series resistance.

The cases treated are not exhaustive but make it evident that negative resistances can be obtained from two terminal devices with suitable impulsive impedance characteristics. An important feature which it is desirable to produce is an interval of time with relatively high values of -D(t) compared to values at earlier times. It is also apparent from Equations 2.9 and 2.13 that the value of negative resistance can be adjusted by an adjustment of the period of the signal relative to the decay time of the impulsive impedance across the unit. Thus, negative resistance to the signal will be realized if the sum of the areas under the impulsive impedance versus time characteristic occurring in the second and third quadrants of the signal period is greater than the sum of the areas in the first and fourth quadrants.

2. THE TRANSIENT EQUATION A. Introduction Transient efiects in semiconductive devices exhibiting negative resistance will now be considered. In the-in- 14 terest of clarity the discussion of the mode of operation which follows will be restricted to that in which only one form of charge carrier is present, although it is to be understood that transit time negative resistance can be realized with both types of carriers contributing to the operation. A specific example of operation with both type carriers is set forth in detail in W. T. Read application Serial No. 438,917, filed June 24, 1954, wherein a Zener current source in the center of a junction is employed as an emitter of holes and electrons, both of which flow to the edges of the surrounding space charge region to provide the current-voltage phase relationship which effects negative resistance.

The flow of the type of charge carrier predominating in a zone of semiconductive material can be suppressed by providing an adjacent zone containing a smaller quantity of those carriers contiguous with said zone and biasing the junction between them in the reverse direction. The predominating carriers are forced out of the zone by the biasing field which tends to replace those carriers with carriers drawn from the adjacent zone. However, since the density of these carriers in the second zone is low relative to those in the first zone, the withdrawn carriers are not replaced and a depletion of carriers in the first zone results.

In this section we shall consider transient effects in structures containing holes but no electrons in significant quantities. The choice of holes is dictated by the algebraic simplicity of their positive sign. In addition to the space charge of the holes denoted by p for the steady state bias condition, we shall suppose that there is also a space charge due to an unchanging density Nd and Na. of donors and acceptors. Poissons equation then takes the form for the steady state condition Ke E/ x=p+p (3.1) where p.= (N.N.) .2)

K==K (3.3) for brevity.

One structure of particular interest is shown in Fig. 12. It consists of a semiconductive body having end zones 61 and 62 of strongly p-type material, p containing large acceptor predominances as indicated in Fig. 15 and an intermediate zone 63 of 1 material containing a small donor predominance.

For such a structure the distribution of potential and charge density with operating biases Will be of the form shown in Figs. 13, 14 and 15.

In accordance with the simplifying assumptions, no electrons are represented in this figure. Electron accumulations can be suppressed provided the hole density at the potential maximum is large compared to the value Ni characteristic of intrinsic material.

We shall deal throughout this section With current densities and with other quantities on a unit area basis. The quantity D(t) will thus have the dimensions of area per farad. The charge added at t=0, will be denoted by BQn; dQo has the dimension of charge per unit area. Other charges per unit area which vary with time will be denoted by 6Q or 6Q(t).

We shall first describe in qualitative terms some of the efiects that occur subsequent to the addition of a charge 5Q0 as discussed in Section 1. We shall suppose that this charge is added instantaneously with +8Qo on the left boundary plane terminal of Fig. 16 and 5Qo on the right boundary plane terminal. Immediately after the application of the charge, the distribution of potential will be the same as that of a parallel plate condenser having the dielectric constant of the semiconductor in the structure.

The transient charge distribution and transient electric field will then be as represented in F ss- 17 a d pa s (A) ro h. (C) pr s the condition in the body at successive instants of time. The fringing electric fields are relatively unimportant and will be neglected. The charge distribution will consist of two infinitesimally thin sheets of charge.

The voltage drop may be calculated from Poissons equation which may be written in the form 'l- )=P( )+P P( J) where E and 6B are steady state and transient electric fields, p, p and 6 are the charge densities for steady state holes, Fig. 14, donors and acceptors, Fig. 15, and the transient holes, Figs. 17 (A) through (C), respectively. The transient part of the equation is To the left of x=x E= in accordance with Fig. 16. The value to the right of the, charge +Q is This field persists until the right edge of the structure. For x greater than x,, the contribution to the integral from 6Qo cancels that due to +5Qo and gives E=0. The voltage resulting from this field is (aQ /K) (x x 3.7

This is the correct relationship for charge and voltage for a condenser of dielectric constant K and thickness x, x

B. Relaxation in the p layers We shall next consider the relaxation of the charge distribution. We shall consider first the p+ layer on the left, zone 61. In this layer the transient electric field is fiQo/K and consequently the current density is initially This current density is independent of x and consequently produces no accumulation of charge. Hence the change of charge density in the 2+ layer of zone 61 consists simply of a decay of the charge 5Q(t) at x at a rate dliQ/dr=6J=-(/K)5Q (3.9) leading to a solution 6Q(t) =6Qo exp t/K) (3.10) he quan y K/0'=K/;Lp (3.11)

is the dielectric relaxation time. For germanium with a: 10 mho/crn. and K: 16, we have K=l.41 x 10- farad/cm. (3.12) and K/a'=l.4 x 10- sec. (3.13)

This time is much shorter than most of the other times considered.

We may apply the reasoning of Section 1 to the decay of voltage across the 12+ layers. The voltage is initially EW =5Q W /K 3.14

where W is the sum of the widths of the two 12+ layers 61 and 62. The value ofD(r) is thus D(t)=(W ,/K) exp (rt/K) (3.15) and it with much less conductivity than the p+ layers. As a result, the current in the v-region induced by 6E=6Q/K will be much less than that in the p+ layers and almost no charge will flow into it during the time that 6Q on the surface decays to zero. As a result, the change in the first l0- second in 6,0 and 6E will be as shown in Figs. 17 and 18.

Figs. 17 and 18 show successive instants of time, with time advancing from top to bottom and corresponding states for 6 and 6E shown horizontally. It represents the inward shift of +6Q and -6Q to the boundaries of the :1 layer 63, with no accumulation of charge within the 17+ layers in the process. The transient voltage drop is the area under the 6E curve.

C. A hypothetical illustration We shall next discuss the drop in voltage across the v-region 0n the basis of a much simplified picture of the hole flow. For this purpose we shall assume that hole flow into the region is extremely sensitive to the field. Thus we shall suppose that the current flowing over the maximum in Figure 19 is of the form 6J=a 6E (3.17) the interpretation of 03 in terms of the situation at the potential maximum being given later.

From this assumption we can derive an expression for the decay of 6B as follows: From 3.6 we have the result The rate of change of charge per unit area between x, and x is the current at x which is J, minus the current at x which is J+5J. Hence K(?3/3t)5E(x,t)=6] (3.19) Hence for 6E at the maximum we have $512: (o',,,/K)5E 320 Hence 5E decays with a relaxation time of K/a' where a is a sort of conductivity at the potential maximum in the v-region defined by Equation 3.17. In a following section, we shall show that a good approximation for a is simply #p Where p is the hole charge density at the maximum.

We shall assume that K/a' is much less than the transit time of a hole across the v-region. Consequently, the pulse of holes, brought past the maximum by the process just discussed, will be relatively narrow compared; to. the width of the v-region. Behind this pulse, the field'will' have its normal value so that 6E=O, and ahead of it will be approximately The position of the pulse, the distribution of 6B and of the transient voltage 6V (which is 6Q D( t) by definition) aV=-fsEdx 3.22

l as functions of time at approximately equal time intervals are represented in Figs. 20, 21, and 22. Due to the curvature. of the potential distribution, illustrated in Fig. 19', the drift velocity of the hole pulse increases continuously, a feature represented on Fig. 20 by the progressively increasing advances of pulse position between one. instant and the next. As a consequence of this accelerated motion, the rate of decrease of area in Fig. 21 increases with time. Hence the rate of decrease of voltage and of D'(t) increases with advancing time as shown in Figs. 22 and 23. As a consequence, the D(t) curve of Fig. 23 has the desired convex upward shape that results in negativeresistance at the proper frequency. D. The efiect of holes in the u-region We shall next, consider how the steady state density p of holes, in the u-region. influences the behavior of the 

